This section describes how to safely store and contain waste at the household, communal and public level. Waste storage is the first, important, step of the SWM service chain after generation and segregation [P.2]. Without sufficient and appropriate storage at the point of generation, waste is scattered throughout settlements creating public health risks in close proximity to the population. 

Waste storage is also a precondition for effective waste collection (section [C]). If waste generated is not safely stored and contained at the point of generation, it may never enter the SWM service chain (unless costly campaigns are run to collect scattered waste). 

Waste can be stored directly at the point of generation, such as at an individual and household level, or as communal and shared storage, for instance, for multiple households. A third type is waste storage in public spaces such as markets or parks to facilitate the disposal of waste items outside of households. These three options are covered in more detail in the following technology sheets:

S.1    Individual and Household Storage

S.2    Community and Shared Storage

S.3    Public Litter Storage

Depending on the collection system [C], household waste storage is also an interface between the waste workers and the residents (i.e. waste producers) providing an opportunity for feedback (for example, waste workers may suggest improvements to household members about waste handling or waste segregation). In humanitarian settings, waste storage systems are usually provided free of charge to residents. Storage systems might be established in different forms, for instance as built infrastructure, equipment (bins or containers) or household items (bags, or smaller bins or containers). The type of waste storage container is a critical element for efficient collection. 

Objectives of Waste Storage

Whether waste is stored at household, communal or public level, the design and use of a waste storage system must consider three key aspects: 

Safety and convenience for individuals and households to deposit and store waste: for waste generators, such as individuals or households, depositing waste in storage facilities needs to be as simple, convenient and pleasant as possible. The locations of waste storage should be as close to the waste generation point as possible to reduce carrying distances. They should be designed for the different individuals depositing the waste (for instance, children cannot reach above a certain height to deposit waste or lift heavy lids). Storage locations and vessels should be kept clean to minimise smell, which can prevent their use. Cleanliness and containment with a lid or through closure of the storage system will prevent animal intrusion and potential disease vectors. Storage locations should not be (or perceived to be by the users) places of risk, either from the waste itself or as a location for criminal acts or sexual or gender-based violence. There should be no risk from depositing waste for users and bystanders, especially women, children the elderly and persons with disabilities.

Facilitating the safe and efficient emptying of the storage system during collection of waste: for operators collecting waste from storage and loading collection vehicles, waste storage must enable safe, fast and efficient handling. For example, manual loads must not be too heavy, storage containers must be easy and fast to empty and workers’ exposure to waste minimised. Without these measures, the waste may not be collected and the safety of workers may be jeopardised.

Safe waste containment during storage: waste storage capacity must be sufficient to store enough waste between collections. Storage must also minimise the exposure of individuals and operators to waste, prevent the scattering of waste, avoid environmental pollution and prevent access to animal and disease vectors. The storage must prevent surface water or rainwater coming into contact with the waste or wind dispersing it. Safely containing waste also requires durable vessels resistant to the liquid and corrosive nature of waste and able to withstand, as much as possible, UV light, heat, fire, mechanical damage and vandalism.

Choice of Storage Systems and Vessels

The choice and design of storage facilities must consider the availability of materials and equipment, the waste management system, waste practices, the spatial characteristics of the settlements, and affordability. 

The appropriateness of storage solutions may change in different humanitarian phases. Emergency waste storage might be based on the simplest and most accessible designs and be at the community level [S.2]. In protracted or development situations waste storage solutions can become more complex and extensive and are likely to be complemented by community sensitisation and information campaigns [X.6]. At this stage, household storage [S.1] may be combined with community shared storage [S.2] and public litter storage [S.3].

The choice of storage solutions needs to consider the existing practices, waste management activities and services of nearby settlements and service providers. This increases the opportunities for synergies and may lay the foundation for better exit strategies such as handing over to local utilities and authorities. While addressing the three storage objectives described above, the selection of preferred storage solutions is best made using a participatory approach with the community [X.2]. 

Ideally, the storage vessels of choice are already used locally and are available at local markets and retailers. Nevertheless, durability, ease of use and costs are essential factors to consider. If vessels are perceived as too expensive to be used for waste storage, they might be repurposed for the storage of more valuable goods, such as food or, if received free of charge, may be resold. The volume of storage vessels must always include reserves to prevent overflows and to cover for potential delays in collection frequency and irregular service.

Waste storage must be appropriate for the next step of the SWM service chain: the collection and transport (chapter [C]) of waste. Whatever the means of transport - manual transport [C.1], animal transport [C.2] or motorised transport ([C.3] and [C.4]) - storage must enable safe and efficient emptying and waste collection.

Waste segregation, an important measure to recover valuable materials from waste and reduce the amount of waste, requires different storage systems depending on the material segregated [P.2]. It is essential to highlight the specific waste material each storage vessel should receive, with colour coding and clear descriptions. The number and design of vessels must match the number of segregation categories and their generation rate, volume and collection frequency.

Social Considerations 

Convenient, functional and economic waste storage facilitates cleanliness in communities and households, providing dignity and protection from public health and environmental risks. Affected communities in emergencies might be unfamiliar with waste management and, especially, waste storage. Individuals might be too traumatised and occupied with the after-effects of disasters and tragedies to SWM as a priority. SWM interventions which anticipate active roles for individuals and households must therefore be simple and as similar as possible to previous practices. Significant changes in behaviour [X.6] or different storage systems should ideally be introduced at a later stage with the participation of the affected population [X.2]. 

Before distributing items for household waste storage, other basic storage needs must be covered to avoid the diversion of waste storage vessels to other purposes. 

This section describes the different means of transport for the collection and transport of waste. The regular, safe, reliable and efficient collection and transport of waste is a key element in the SWM service chain, connecting the location of waste generation to the location where waste is treated or disposed of. If the equipment and infrastructure of waste collection and transport are not adapted to local contexts and needs, or their use is not adequately managed and operated, the performance of the entire SWM service chain is at risk. Collection and transport services must be available for all waste; be reliable and regular; and their capacity adjusted to the amount of waste produced. Otherwise, waste accumulates in households, neighbourhoods and public spaces. This discourages communities and can lead them to engage in unsafe practices such as open dumping [U.10] and open burning [U.11] of waste. During collection and transport, special care must be taken to avoid intentional or unintentional waste spillage into public spaces, endangering public health and the environment. The following five collection and transport technologies, including transfer stations [C.5], are described in more detail in subsequent sections. Transfer stations combine different transportation types and systems, covering the needs of both primary and secondary collection. Primary collection is the collection from the location of waste generation to a transfer station. Secondary collection is bulk transport from a transfer station to the site of disposal or use. 

C.1     Manual Transport

C.2     Animal Transport

C.3     Motorised Transport - Smaller Vehicles

C.4     Motorised Transport - Larger Vehicles

C.5     Transfer Station

Selecting Vehicle Types for Collection and Transport 

Waste collection and transport must be as effective as possible which requires appropriate vehicles. Many factors determine the selection of appropriate vehicles including sufficient capacity (vehicle body volume) to transport the amount of waste required; appropriate vehicle width and weight to match road width, road surface quality and road slope; and the specific vehicle design and equipment measures to minimise loading time and exposure of waste collectors to waste. Other factors and aspects affecting vehicle choice and design include the transport distances required (which influences the means of propulsion) and the widespread availability of vehicles in an area (which is linked to locally available skills and the supply chain for maintenance and customisation). Furthermore, the extent of waste segregation at the point of collection and the physical interface to load/unload waste at a transfer station, also influence the choice of vehicles. Finally, vehicle selection also depends on cost and/or the availability of capital and the operational budget of the service provider. Small and manoeuvrable vehicles ([C.1], [C.2], [C.3]) are typically used for collection in dense settlements with narrow access roads and when transport is limited to shorter distances. Bigger vehicles with large payloads [C.4] can be used for bulk transport over longer distances. Where the hauling distances from the point of collection to the location of treatment and/or disposal are long, it is often most economical to combine small vehicles for primary collection (delivering waste to a collection point or transfer station [C.5]) and larger vehicles [C.4] for secondary collection over longer distances to the point of use or disposal.

For these reasons, waste transport is almost exclusively based on the usage of differently powered vehicles. The volume of waste to be collected along a selected route will influence decisions on the body volume size of the vehicle. Density (defined by weight per volume), route distance, road surface quality and road slope will influence the selection of the vehicle’s type of propulsion. The propulsion of the vehicles can be by humans, animals or engines. The efficiency of the loading is influenced by the vehicle’s design. It is also affected by household waste storage practices and the interface between waste generation and collection (household, communal or public). Loading and unloading waste must be as efficient and fast as possible to ensure the productive use of vehicles and operators’ work time. Collecting waste in bags or bins, for example, requires less loading time than manual loading by waste collectors from waste piles on the ground using shovels and rakes.

Point of Collection

At the point of collection, the design of the collection and transport system differs according to the needs and behaviour of the service users. It also depends on the finance available for the collection service. 

Door-to-door collection service: when collectors knock on each door to request and obtain the waste. 

Roadside collection service: when residents leave their waste at the roadside at a specified time for a scheduled collection. Similarly, 

Summoned collection: a type of roadside collection but when residents are alerted (for instance by a bell) to bring their waste to the collection vehicle. 

Self-delivered collection: when residents themselves bring the waste to a collection point or communal storage. 

Door-to-door, roadside and summoned collection take the most effort and time as numerous collection points must be visited. Self-delivered collection is commonly more efficient as fewer collection points are needed.

The applicability of the different means of transport is summarised in the following table:

Timing and Frequency of Collection

Regularity and reliability are key features of good waste collection. The collection frequency of a regular service depends on the waste amounts that accumulate at the point of collection, the vehicle capacity and the composition of the waste. Organic waste, for instance, rapidly decomposes in hot climates and should be collected daily or at least every second day to avoid smell and the attraction of disease-spreading animal vectors. Segregated non-organic waste can be collected less frequently (e.g. every two weeks). It is crucial to prevent overflow at waste storage facilities or collection points. Depending on the type of waste collection system, the timing of waste collection must match the accessibility of the point of collection or the residents’ availability to hand over the waste. The planning and timing of collection routes should keep travel distances short and avoid heavy traffic.

Waste Segregation

The segregation of waste into different fractions, such as biodegradable waste, recyclable materials and residual waste, is an essential stage that happens before waste collection [P.2]. Waste sorting happens during or after collection and transport. When waste is segregated, it is the responsibility of the collection and transport system to ensure that waste remains segregated. This can be achieved through separate waste collections – either different collection rounds collect the different fractions, or the collection vehicle is designed with separated compartments to collect the different fractions during the same collection round. Waste collectors must be trained to ensure that segregated fractions are not mixed. Door-to-door collection provides more opportunities for operators to verify waste segregation and, if need be, to provide feedback and instructions to households.

Involvement of the Community 

Communities must be aware of the collection frequencies and timing as they may need to prepare the handover of waste to operators, especially for door-to-door, roadside or summoned collections. Clear and accessible complaints procedures and options can help identify inadequate collection frequencies or service levels [X.3]. 

Staff and Occupational Health and Safety

At a minimum, operators and drivers of waste collection and transport must be trained in occupational health and safety measures [X.4] and safe waste handling. Assigned vehicles and collection and transport routes need to be clearly communicated. Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) must be provided for different staff duties. Personnel must have access to washing facilities at work to ensure personal hygiene. The workforce must be representative of sub-communities with different cultural backgrounds, origins etc. and should be, when possible, gender-balanced. 

Supervision and Monitoring

The provision of waste collection and transport requires careful supervision and monitoring. The amount of waste collected, number of loads and areas served must be recorded and analysed. This helps prevent the misuse of vehicles and fuel, assess whether transport capacities are sufficient and adequately distributed, and monitor whether storage locations and points of collection are served according to need. Drivers and operators should be actively consulted regarding potential improvements for collection and transport [X.2].

Cultural and Social Considerations

Cultural or social challenges regarding the collection and transport of solid waste must be considered from the onset. Granting household access to waste workers increases the associated risks for household members and workers (e.g. female waste workers) and must be carefully evaluated. To prevent the stigmatisation of waste handling, communities need to be informed about the importance of SWM [X.6]. To create and maintain a positive impression, vehicles and PPE should be marked in an appealing and colourful manner and be regularly cleaned.

Treatment and recycling are an integral part of the SWM chain; they promote circularity and recovery of value from waste and, more importantly, reduce the quantity of waste for disposal and its impact on the environment and public health. This aligns with the waste management hierarchy [P.1], which advocates removing valuable and usable materials whenever possible.

This section presents eight different treatment and recycling technologies that can potentially be implemented in a wide range of humanitarian contexts. The selected solutions are feasible in humanitarian settings: they can be set up and operated at low cost, rely on simple equipment and, predominately, manual labour inputs. Nonetheless, the necessary prioritisation of immediate life-saving interventions makes their use unlikely during or shortly after emergencies. In these initial phases, the focus of SWM may be entirely on the collection, removal and safe disposal of waste.

Treatment and recycling capture the value of waste materials, repurposing, reusing, recycling or recovering their energy and nutrients and reducing the burden on waste disposal. If a treatment or recycling system already exists, separated recyclables or organic waste from humanitarian operations should be sold or handed over to the relevant local economic sector [U.1] rather than treated and used by the humanitarian sector to produce new items ([U.2] – [U.4]). This prevents market distortions and makes valuable resources available for local economies. 

This section’s eight technologies focus on organic waste treatment ([T.1] – [T.5]) and the recycling of plastics. Three approaches to recycling plastics are described; they are differentiated by the value and functionality of the end product compared with the initial material: Plastic Recycling [T.6] is the process where the end product is of similar value and functionality as its source  (e.g. waste plastic items make new plastic items); Upcycling [T.7] refers to a higher value end product and Downcycling [T.8] produces an end product of lower value and functionality. 

Technologies for recycling other waste fractions (paper, metal, or glass) are purposely omitted here. Due to their sophistication, energy requirements or required processing scale, humanitarian actors are unlikely to implement these recycling processes. In this case, humanitarian actors should engage with the formal recycling sector, where it exists, for these waste fractions (see also [U.1]). 

The technologies covered in this section are:

T.1     Composting

T.2     Vermicomposting

T.3     Anaerobic Digestion

T.4     Black Soldier Fly Waste Processing 

T.5     Making Fuel from Biomass

T.6     Plastic Recycling

T.7     Plastic Upcycling 

T.8     Plastic Downcycling

Composting [T.1], vermicomposting [T.2], anaerobic digestion [T.3] of organic waste and the production of solid biomass fuels [T.5] can be applied at both household and large-scale levels. The remaining technologies are likely to be limited to large, community-scale implementation. This limitation is often because of higher equipment costs, more complex work procedures, increased occupational safety requirements [X.4] or the size of the equipment (suitable for larger processing units). The point in the SWM service chain where treatment or recycling activities take place depends on the scale of the process. At a household level, it follows Storage (section [S]); at a community level, it follows Collection and Transport (section [C]). 

Waste Separation as a Pre-Requisite

A key precondition for treatment and recycling is waste segregation or sorting [P.2]. Waste segregation precedes waste collection and transport - the segregated waste is stored in separate containers at the point of waste generation. Thereafter, the segregated fractions can either be treated or recycled on-site or collected separately before treatment and recycling. The latter is typically carried out through a separate waste collection or by using separate compartments/containers in the collection vehicle during the same collection round. Waste segregation thus ensures that waste fractions of value are not soiled or contaminated by the rest of the waste and can be processed efficiently in the treatment and recycling step to ensure output products of high quality and value. By contrast, waste sorting is the process of extracting the materials of interest from mixed waste. Compared to waste segregation, sorting requires more effort and cost and yields lower-value raw materials for treatment and recycling. Sorting can be done during or after collection and transport or even after final disposal (e.g. mining a disposal site for materials of value). Sorting after disposal with subsequent treatment and recycling is not recommended given the low quality of resources obtained, the high costs and the higher risks to workers’ safety and health [X.4]. Segregation should always be prioritised over sorting. In some cases, a further sorting of segregated waste is conceivable, for instance, to generate higher purity waste fractions or to further separate materials (e.g. the removal of organic material with a high-cellulose content from organic waste prior to anaerobic digestion).

Stakeholders

The actors involved in treatment and recycling vary depending on the scale and location of the activity. Treatment and recycling at household and small-scale levels (e.g. home composting) is conducted by the household members; at a community scale it could be the responsibility of individual community members, community-based organisations, non-governmental organisations, small private sector enterprises or the SWM service provider. Actors engaged in larger, centralised processing are typically the formal and informal private sector or the responsible SWM service provider. In humanitarian settings, treatment and recycling activities also provide economic opportunities for affected communities through employment or cash-for-work programmes [X.5]. Such engagement can provide immediate financial relief and contribute to local infrastructure recovery, community services and resilience-building. For all community and larger-scale treatment and recycling, well-trained staff, careful supervision and monitoring [X.3] are required. Staff must be trained in occupational safety and safe waste handling, be provided with personal protective equipment according to their different duties and have access to washing facilities for personal hygiene [X.4]. Special attention should be paid to ensuring a gender-balanced workforce as well as the balanced engagement of different sub-communities with, for example, different cultural backgrounds and origins [X.10].

Outputs

Products from treated or recycled waste can be sold, distributed or used within humanitarian responses. Products can become consumer goods [U.3] for everyday needs, construction materials [U.4], inputs for use in agriculture [U.5], or an energy source in the form of biogas [U.6] or fuel from biomass [U.7]. It is important to assess local markets and avoid distorting them with subsidised products from humanitarian interventions.

Financial Considerations

The cost and revenue associated with waste treatment and recycling can vary significantly depending on the size, location, type of waste and technology employed. Revenue streams from sales of treated and recycled waste may offset some of these costs. However, the income is unlikely to be higher than the costs. Planners and operators should not view treatment and recycling as a financially sustainable process but rather as an integral component of waste management which incurs costs but results in benefits to the whole solid waste system and the local economy. There are some direct financial benefits, such as reduced quantities of waste to dispose of, savings in landfill space and reduced costs of landfilling. Treatment and recycling can also reduce costs to society. Treating instead of disposing of organic waste lowers the risk of environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions at the disposal site. Recycling plastic reduces the risk of plastic being burned and causing ambient air pollution, the spreading of toxic compounds and greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling plastic can also prevent leakage into the environment, especially into drains and water bodies causing blockages, aquatic and marine debris or the formation of microplastic pollution.

Importance of safe material processing to prevent pollution 

While the recycling and treatment of waste materials contributes to the protection of public health and the environment, it is essential that the processing itself does not create a new source of pollution. Treatment and recycling processes must be executed in the safest way possible, even in humanitarian settings. For instance, if plastic processing is not conducted in a safe and controlled manner, it can lead to the formation of microplastics, the release of toxic fumes or the spreading of plastic waste into the environment polluting soils and water bodies. If organic materials are not managed with care, they can become a breeding ground for disease vectors, create greenhouse gas emissions or pollute water bodies. In keeping with Do No Harm principles all those involved in the planning of treatment and recycling activities must assess the adequacy of their expertise and the potential negative impacts of their activities on the public health and environment.

Key Elements for Selecting an Appropriate Recycling and/or Treatment Option

Not every option suits every context, and it is therefore important to select the recycling and treatment options that fit the technical, economic and social context of the specific location and the expertise of involved actors. Typical questions to be answered are as follows:

Technical aspects:

·       Are waste characteristics and amounts suitable for the treatment/recycling option being considered?

·       Is there access to internal or external expertise for the design and construction of adequate treatment facilities? 

·       Is sufficient expertise available from engaged actors to initiate the operation and maintenance of the facility? Is it possible to train local staff?

Economic aspects:

·       Is there a market for the end product (inside or outside of the humanitarian setting)? 

·       Does the SWM budget cover the capital cost (CAPEX) and operational cost (OPEX) of treatment and recycling facilities?

·       What would the expected revenue (or saving) be if treated or recycled materials were sold or distributed?

Social aspects:

·       Is it socially acceptable in the given context to use the end product? (e.g. cook with biogas from waste source etc.)

·       Does the community have any bad/good experiences with such a treatment/recycling option which could discourage or favour its use?

Legal aspects:

·       Is there any legislation/policy preventing the use of such a treatment/recycling option?

·       Is there any legislation/policy preventing the use of the end product?

·       Are there any legislation/policy-setting standards for process or end product quality?

Use and Disposal is the last step in the SWM service chain after Storage [S], Collection and Transport [C] and Treatment and Recycling [T]. It consists of options to make productive use or safely dispose of the output materials produced earlier in the SWM chain. Recommended use and disposal technology options are listed in descending order of priority: whenever possible, the use of recovered valuable and usable materials is prioritised over safe disposal. Safe disposal of waste is prioritised over unsafe disposal. Unsafe disposal methods, such as open dumping or burning ([U.10] – [U.12]), might happen, especially in the early stages of a humanitarian response, but should be rapidly replaced by safer options ([U.1] – [U.9]). In the early stages of humanitarian responses, health protection and rapid implementation take precedence, so the use of the recommended technologies may not initially be feasible. These options should be introduced as soon as possible, but often become more relevant in later, more stable phases when longer-term solutions can be implemented more effectively.

The order of the seven Use technologies ([U.1] – [U7]) also partly reflects their priority use: whenever possible, recyclables or biomass should be sold or handed over to the local private sector [U.1] instead of the humanitarian sector treating or producing new items ([U.2] – [U.4]). This prevents market distortions and makes valuable resources available for local economies [X.5]. Whenever appropriate, the agricultural use of biomass [U.5] should take priority over its use as solid biomass fuel [U.7] as it enables nutrients and soil carbon to recirculate, helps to maintain soil quality and can enhance agricultural productivity. 

Use

U.1 Sale of Recyclables

U.2 Reuse of Waste Materials

U.3 Consumer Goods

U.4 Construction 

U.5 Use in Agriculture

U.6 Use of Biogas

U.7 Use of Fuel from Biomass

Safe disposal

U.8 Controlled Waste Pit

U.9 Controlled Disposal Site/Landfill

Unsafe disposal (not recommended)

U.10 Open Dumping

U.11 Open Burning

U.12 Contained Burning

Use: in accordance with the principle of the waste management hierarchy, valuable and usable materials should be removed from waste whenever possible [P.1]. This reduces the quantity of waste requiring safe disposal. In humanitarian settings, useful and valuable materials should, whenever possible, be sold or handed over to the local economy [U.1] or be reused [U.2]. This includes recyclables (which can be transformed by local enterprises into new items) and biomass, which the local agricultural sector and community can put to use. Only in contexts where no relevant local private sector exists, or if there is no market interest, should humanitarian actors engage in the use or sale of products derived from waste. Products from recovered waste materials can be sold, distributed or used within humanitarian responses in the form of consumer goods for everyday needs [U.3], as construction materials [U.4], for agricultural activities [U.5], or as an energy source ([U.6] and [U.7]). Local markets should be assessed to avoid distorting them with subsidised products from humanitarian interventions [X.5]. To plan the use of products from recovered waste materials, the following should be assessed:

-      Existence of local markets, local demands and local economic interests

-      Type and quality of available raw materials from waste 

-      Potential production rates and the product quality of new goods

-      Socio-cultural acceptance of products derived from waste materials

-      Relevant regulatory frameworks

-      Availability of equipment, space and the availability and capacity of local labour

-      Potential impact on soil, groundwater and air

Safe disposal: despite efforts to reduce the amount of waste by using as much of it as possible, there will always be a fraction of residual waste requiring disposal. Safe disposal of waste aims to contain and isolate the impact of the waste within a specific location. Mitigation measures prevent the spreading of waste or the contamination of air, soil or water. In humanitarian settings, the use of existing disposal facilities and their potential improvement and enlargement should be a priority. This ensures that the local infrastructure benefits from humanitarian activities, prevents the creation of parallel systems and can facilitate the handover and exit of humanitarian actors. Furthermore, it is usually challenging to find new suitable locations for waste disposal due to public opposition, environmental concerns, limited space, financial constraints and regulatory challenges, including the need for approval from the authorities [X.1]. Safe disposal ideally happens at Controlled Disposal Sites or Landfills [U.9]. If controlled and managed disposal at centralised sites is not possible and if non-organic waste amounts are small (for example in sparsely populated rural areas) the use of Controlled Waste Pits [U.8] at a household level is feasible. For centralised disposal sites and sanitary landfills, it is of critical importance to reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of to increase the lifetime of the disposal facility. Avoiding waste, segregating it at source or sorting waste through the SWM service chain to recover valuable and usable materials is a priority [P.1]. Municipal Waste Incineration technology is not included as a safe disposal method in the Compendium as it is not adapted to humanitarian contexts.

Unsafe disposal: Open dumping [U.10] and open burning [U.11] of waste are globally widespread methods to dispose of waste, including in humanitarian settings. However, these practices are inadvisable due to their adverse impact on public health and the environment. In humanitarian contexts, these practices might be used at the onset of emergencies due to the lack of suitable SWM services and infrastructure. Nonetheless, a shift to more controlled and safe disposal options should be initiated as soon as possible. Existing open dumpsites might also be rehabilitated and transformed into controlled disposal sites [U.9]. If an upgrade to a safe disposal site is not possible, open dumpsites should be decommissioned, considered as contaminated sites and remediation initiated. 

The final disposal method described in this Compendium is the contained burning of waste [U.12]. It is listed as an unsafe disposal method and is not recommended for mixed or residual waste due to its health and environmental impact. Contained burning is the combustion of waste in a specially designed furnace to promote the complete combustion of the waste. Often, the equipment does not reach the complete combustion conditions required to reduce toxic emissions and they do not offer flue gas cleaning to remove harmful pollutants. Contained burning is not the same as waste incineration. Incineration is a highly sophisticated, technical and complex waste treatment approach that fully controls fly ash, gas and slag emissions with specific technical and monitoring measures to limit environmental and health impacts. Incineration is expensive, requires specialist skills and is not considered a feasible solution for humanitarian situations. It is often used in municipal waste incineration plants or in hazardous waste incineration facilities. The SWM Compendium does not, therefore, describe high-tech incineration and the terms incineration and incinerator are avoided. Instead, the terms contained burning and furnace are used to differentiate between high-end (incinerator) and low-end (contained burning) technology. The only exception is the use of low-tech incinerators for hazardous medical waste [W.1].  Contained burning is also presented as a technology for the treatment of menstrual and incontinence waste [U.12].