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Appropriate SWM refers to a controlled and strategic approach to the sustainable management of solid wastes. It entails progressing towards environmentally sound management for all waste - covering all sources of waste generation and all aspects of the service and resource value chain, including waste avoidance, reduction, generation, segregation, collection, transfer, transport, sorting, treatment, recycling, recovery and disposal. Solid waste management is a cross-cutting issue which impacts many global challenges such as health, environmental degradation, climate change, poverty reduction, food and resource security and sustainable production and consumption.
But what is waste? Solid waste is any solid, discarded material generated from human activities. Waste becomes waste when the person discarding it has no further use for it, irrespective of whether it has use or value to others. There are different ways of categorising solid waste. A common starting point is to differentiate waste by its source, i.e. the location or entity generating the waste. For example, household waste encompasses different materials discarded by household members. A wider category is ’Domestic Waste’ or ’Municipal Solid Waste’ (MSW) - both describe the different sources and types of solid waste generated in a settlement. Domestic Waste includes discarded materials from households, commerce, schools, offices and public spaces. Domestic Waste may even include waste from small industry, construction and demolition debris or agricultural waste generated in the settlement area. This Compendium focuses on humanitarian Domestic Waste: the generation and management of wastes from households, commerce, schools, offices and public spaces linked to a humanitarian crisis and humanitarian aid, or to the aid response itself.
Waste can be further categorised by its type. For example, organic waste from households or restaurants typically consisting of easily biodegradable organic material is described as organic food/kitchen waste. Slower degrading cuttings from trees and bushes are also organic and may also originate from the household but would be described (and managed) as organic garden/wood waste. Other examples of such product type descriptions are e-Waste (W.7), or Hazardous Waste (W.2).
The next level of detail in describing waste is its specific material composition, for instance differentiating between the types of waste plastics in packaging waste or the substances contained in e-waste.
The amount and characteristics of solid waste can vary considerably between emergency phases, communities and nations depending on consumption patterns, income and lifestyle.
Developing a waste management system is complex. In addition to infrastructure, technology, equipment and operations, SWM interacts with and depends on numerous, diverse actors with different behaviours and perceptions. To be sustainable in the long term, consideration needs to be given to:
The physical elements (infrastructure and equipment) of the system along the entire SWM service chain: from waste generation through storage, collection, transport, transfer, recycling, recovery, treatment and disposal. This includes appropriate infrastructure, technology and equipment which is ’fit for purpose’ and that is operated and maintained according to best practice, to ensure reliable and safe service for all. These physical elements are described in more detail in PART 2 of the Compendium.
The stakeholders (actors), who include local, regional and national governments, waste generators/service users (households, commerce and institutions), manufacturers of the consumer goods which become waste at the end of their life, service providers (public or private sector, formal or informal, large or small), civil society and national non-governmental organisations, those outside the affected community impacted by the SWM process and international aid agencies.
Institutional and legislative aspects, i.e. adhering to national or international strategy, policy and political goals such as specific technology solutions endorsed for waste treatment and the avoidance of certain products and materials.
Financial and socio-economic aspects require the system to be cost-effective, affordable and well-financed. In addition to capital expenditure, attention must be paid to how ongoing operational expenditures will be covered.
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The Monitoring X.3 of key performance criteria is often overlooked but is essential to operate an efficient SWM system and understand how the service interacts and performs with respect to the above issues. Monitoring starts with a careful assessment P.3 of the baseline conditions in which the service is established.
In all phases of humanitarian response, whether acute response, protracted crisis or even in transition to development, safe SWM is a crucial element of the protection of affected communities and sustainable, healthy and inclusive living conditions for all. This priority is reflected in the UN resolution of the human right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment. It is addressed in various Sustainable Development Goals, including the 11th(sustainable cities and communities), the 12th (responsible consumption and production) the 14th (life below water) and the 15th (life on land). SWM is included with dedicated minimum standards in the Sphere Handbook, highlighted in the Climate and Environment Charter for Humanitarian Organizations and aligned with the Global Compact on Refugees.
Inadequate and unsafe SWM can have adverse effects on public health and the environment and affect the well-being, dignity and prosperity of communities. In humanitarian contexts and protracted crises, governments, in collaboration with humanitarian and development organisations, must aim to reduce and prevent the exposure of individuals, communities and the environment to risks and threats, which includes unmanaged solid waste. Further, the efforts of humanitarian actors must adhere to the ’Do No Harm’ principle and not contribute intentionally or unintentionally to the existing instability, destruction and suffering. This demands action on waste prevention P.2 and the safe and adequate handling of solid waste.
Humanitarian contexts increase the already challenging provision of day-to-day waste management services in stable and peaceful contexts. Disasters or armed conflicts might disrupt regular waste services, reduce capacity for safe waste handling, or generate significant amounts of additional waste. A sudden increase in service recipients and generated waste volumes may overburden existing infrastructure and services. Rapidly growing temporary settlements may require the establishment of new or additional services.
In humanitarian response, SWM is still frequently under-prioritised through insufficient funding and because the lack of SWM is not considered an immediate threat to life. This is a misconception, as inadequate SWM can significantly increase the protection risks of affected communities that may already be vulnerable. Ensuring proper waste management is essential to ensure protection, maintain hygiene, prevent disease outbreaks and support the overall recovery and rehabilitation effort. As a public good service, it is essential that no one is excluded from SWM services. The negative effects of non-availability and non-use affect all individuals.
The level of risk due to a lack of SWM services depends on the quantity and composition of waste, the duration of the disrupted service and the likelihood that people are directly exposed to the waste or indirectly exposed to the waste’s harmful effects. The likelihood of exposure is linked to population density, the location of the population, aspects of the waste system, environmental factors such as predominant winds and water resources, and geographical factors such as the topography. In locations with high population density and poorly managed waste, the risk that the population will be exposed to the adverse effects of waste increases. In cases of open and uncontrolled disposal U.10, public health and environmental risks extend beyond the initial location of waste disposal. Animals, wind and water can spread the waste in settlements and into the neighbouring environment.
The overall importance of SWM is reflected in five actions:
Protection of Public Health: Unmanaged waste can increase the prevalence of chronic diseases, pathogenic infections and the infestation of vermin. For example, open burning U.11 and contained burning U.12 emit highly toxic and carcinogenic substances (dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and short-lived climate pollutants (black carbon) that can cause severe respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and increase cancer risk. A lack of waste management can lead to stagnant water where several species of mosquitoes breed, transmitting diseases such as malaria, chikungunya, dengue and zika fever. Unmanaged waste can also attract and provide a breeding ground for other disease vectors, such as rodents. Uncollected waste in streets, open spaces and watercourses lead to the clogging of drains W.6, water stagnation and pollution, as well as flooding which results in the spread of water-borne diseases such as cholera or even the plague. Flooding can also damage infrastructure and lead to the direct loss of life. Uncollected waste in streets and open spaces may also pose a direct threat to people who come into contact with it and may suffer from cut injuries or skin diseases.
Prevention of Environmental Pollution and Degradation: Inappropriate SWM can introduce harmful substances into the soil, water bodies and the air. This contamination can lead to short-term, long-term or irreversible damage to the natural habitat and wildlife and may affect the human food chain. Pollution can be caused by the waste materials themselves, by water flowing through waste to contaminated streams (leachate) or from inappropriate handling of waste such as open and uncontrolled burning U.11. Uncontrolled open burning of waste releases persistent organic pollutants, which bioaccumulate in ecosystems with significant negative impact. Leachate from waste can contaminate surface and groundwater water bodies and contaminate soils. Plastic waste and its persistence over time have emerged as one of the global waste and resource management challenges of our time. The disintegration of plastics can release toxic additives or lead to the formation of microplastics. Unmanaged plastic waste can also cause deadly entanglements for animals and plastic pieces or microplastics are ingested by animals and accumulate throughout the natural food chain. While microplastics have been found in human food chains and even human blood, the health risks remain unclear.
Avoidance of Resource Depletion: A large part of the natural resources extracted to produce consumer goods are finite or limited. Resource extraction itself commonly comes with environmental risks and pollution. Linear consumption, where resources are used and discarded after their lifespan, increases the required resources and corresponding pollution. This dependency on, and need for, virgin resources can be counteracted by applying the principles of a circular economy and waste management strategies that prioritise reduction, reuse and recycling (3Rs) P.1. Agricultural production extracts nutrients and organic matter from soils, reducing soil carbon over time and leading to soil degradation, including lower water retention and higher soil erosion. Organic waste recycling and its use in livestock and agricultural production can ensure that carbon and nutrients are recovered and re-enter the soil and food cycle. 3R strategies and their implementation not only contribute to a circular system but also reduce waste amounts requiring transport, treatment and disposal, alleviating the overall solid waste management challenge.
Maximising Peaceful Coexistence Between and Within Communities: The first three actions - protection of public health, prevention of environmental pollution and degradation and avoidance of resource depletion – need to be addressed so that all members of the affected communities benefit equally from SWM and equitably share its burden (X.9). An uneven provision of services, or the protection of one part of a community at the expense of another, will not foster peaceful coexistence between or within communities. This is particularly important in humanitarian settings, where communities are already vulnerable, traumatised, exhausted and might struggle for their survival. It becomes even more essential in displacement settings, where suddenly different communities are living side by side. This may include refugees and host communities living side by side. Equitable and fair SWM can and must play its part in creating an enabling environment for peaceful coexistence. Providing SWM services creates employment and livelihood opportunities, for example, through ’cash for work’ programmes, paid volunteers or regular employment. Recycling and resource recovery can also generate employment outside the SWM provider such as in the private recycling sector or for community-based organisations. Creating value from waste and making inexpensive raw materials locally available can support local economies. Good SWM also contributes to community well-being by living in a clean and well-managed environment and supports community cohesion.
Climate Change Mitigation: Waste also significantly affects the global climate, aggravating climate change. The open burning of waste U.11 and the uncontrolled decomposition of high volumes of organic waste in dumpsites U.10 generate greenhouse gas emissions. Methane from uncontrolled decomposition in dumpsites or black carbon from open burning are both short-lived climate pollutants, a group of pollutants that have a particularly high impact on climate change X.8.
The SWM in Humanitarian Contexts online platform consists of four parts:
Part 1 introduces three key areas to consider before implementing SWM: waste prevention, waste separation and assessment. The section on waste prevention describes the waste management hierarchy, based on the principle of reduce, reuse and recycle (3R); it also includes aspects of green procurement, the importance of behaviour change, and advocacy for SWM. The waste separation section includes initial waste segregation and subsequent waste sorting. These processes support the treatment of different waste types according to their characteristics, the opportunity to recover valuable and usable materials from waste and the ease of handling reduced waste amounts. The assessment section covers all aspects related to the initial (and continuous) gathering of information about the amount and composition of the waste generated, the existing SWM infrastructure, actors, legal frameworks, and health and environmental risks that help to inform SWM strategies and interventions and to forecast future needs.
This core part of the platform is a comprehensive compilation of relevant SWM technologies that can potentially be used in a wide range of humanitarian contexts, ranging from acute response to longer-term stabilisation and recovery settings. The technologies are categorised, ordered and colour-coded according to the stage (or functional group) of the SWM service chain to which they belong (Storage, Collection and Transport, Treatment and Recycling, Use and Disposal). The technology section contains 28 “Technology Information Sheets”. These standardised summaries of each technology provide the Compendium user with an overview of the basic working principles and design considerations. Key information about each technology’s applicability, cost implications, space and materials needed, and operation and maintenance requirements is also included.
This part presents cross-cutting issues and background information to address when making technology and design decisions. The ten sections include the institutional and regulatory environment, occupational health and safety, market-based programming, hygiene promotion, advocacy, as well as protection, accessibility and conflict sensitivity considerations and links to various other humanitarian sectors and thematic domains.
This platform focuses on the management of domestic and municipal solid waste, including non-hazardous commercial and institutional waste. However, other waste types are found in humanitarian contexts. This part therefore provides more detailed information on the management of specific wastes such as disaster waste, hazardous waste, menstrual and incontinence waste or medical and health care waste.
The eCompendium can be used in very different ways depending on who is using it and for what purpose.
At its core it is a user-friendly compilation of state-of-the-art information on all relevant SWM technologies, cross-cutting issues and preparatory considerations relevant when planning and implementing SWM interventions in humanitarian contexts. Hence it can be used as a structured reference tool for WASH practitioners and capacity development institutions to easily find information on specific technologies, cross-cutting issues or key terms used. Basically, a more interactive version of the hard/softcopy publication.
Using the filter bar at the top of the ‘SWM Technology Overview’ section can be another potential entry point that allows reducing complexity and pre-selecting only those technologies that are suitable for a specific scenario or context. Based on concrete site settings (like e.g. the phase of emergency for which a technology solution is needed, the application level or the local availability of materials) the number of potentially suitable technologies can be considerably reduced to a more digestible size and makes technology selection easier. The categorisation of technologies used for each of the filters should not be seen as fixed and incontrovertible and may vary under certain local conditions. The categorisation is rather meant to support rapid informed decision making and is a complement to, not a substitute for, sound professional judgement.
Specific topics and technologies of interest can be put on a separate watchlist (by clicking on the asterisk next to each technology or topic) either to safe it for later, for print out or to share and discuss it further with colleagues. The watchlist can be accessed by clicking on the ‘watchlist’ tab on the upper left corner. For each technology a 2-page pdf-document is available for download or print out.
The filter bar at the top of the ‘SWM technologies’ section allows reducing complexity and pre-selecting only those technologies that are suitable for a specific scenario or context. Based on concrete site settings the number of potentially suitable technologies can be considerably reduced to a more digestible size and makes technology selection easier. By clicking on the respective boxes under each of the filters only those technologies will be shown that correspond to the respective boxes. The currently active filters are always shown directly under the filter bar. The active filters can be cleared/deactivated by clicking on the ‘reset filter’ button or by deactivating individual boxes of currently active filters. The categorisation of technologies used in each of the filters should not be seen as fixed and incontrovertible and may vary under certain local site conditions. The categorisation is rather meant to support rapid informed decision making and is a complement to, not a substitute for, sound professional judgement. The available filter options include the following:
Indication on appropriateness of SWM technologies according to the five different phases:
Indication on the different spatial levels and scale for which the technology is most appropriate. It is subdivided into the following levels:
It allows giving a first general orientation but may differ in a specific local situation.
Indication where the main responsibility for operation and maintenance (O&M) for a specific technology lies:
It allows giving a first general orientation but may differ in a specific local situation.
Qualitative estimate of the space required for each technology, meaning the area or spatial footprint required by the technology. This can help planning in areas where space is a limiting factor.
The categorisation is based on a comparative approach between the different technologies and is not to be considered in absolute terms.
Indication of the technical complexity of each technology, meaning the level of technical expertise needed to implement, operate and maintain the given technology. This can help planning in cases where skills and capacities are limited or temporarily unavailable.
The categorisation is based on a comparative approach between the different technologies and is not to be considered in absolute terms.
Selecting the most appropriate set of SWM technologies for a specific context is challenging and requires considerable experience. The key decision criteria offer the platform user general guidance on technology selection and the overall design of an SWM system. Each technology information sheet uses the decision criteria and structure described below.
This section indicates the response phase for which the technologies are appropriate. Their suitability is characterised for the five phases (described in more detail in [Response Phases and Implication for SWM]):
An indication of whether a technology is suitable in the different phases is given using asterisks (two asterisks: suitable, one asterisk: less suitable, no asterisk: unsuitable). The level of appropriateness is decided on a comparative level between the different technologies, mainly based on applicability, speed of implementation and material requirements. Determining the applicable emergency phase for a context of interest is up to the Compendium user.
The application level describes the different spatial levels for which the technology is most appropriate. It is subdivided into the following levels:
An indication of whether a technology is suitable at a specific spatial level is made using asterisks (two asterisks: suitable, one asterisk: less suitable, no asterisk: unsuitable). Determining the appropriate application level for a context of interest is up to the compendium user.
The management level describes where the main responsibility for operation and maintenance (O&M) for a specific technology lies:
Household (all O&M-related tasks can be managed by the individual household)
Shared (a group of users are responsible for O&M by ensuring that a person or a committee is in charge
on behalf of all users. Shared facilities refer to a self-defined group of users who decide who is allowed to use the facility and what their responsibilities are)
Public (government, institutional or privately run facilities: all O&M is assumed by the entity operating the facility)
An indication regarding the appropriateness of each management level is given using zero to two asterisks, with two asterisks meaning that the technology can be well handled at the respective level and zero not at all.
This section briefly indicates what the technology aims to deliver and its key feature(s) and function(s) such as ‘safe waste storage at household level’. It also provides a shortcut for the immediate evaluation and classification of technologies and their suitability for an envisioned application or context.
This section indicates the preconditions that need to be in place for the technology to be effective and applicable. It includes aspects such as the purity of the input materials (sufficiently sorted, cleaned with no composite or mixed materials), whether waste needs to be segregated first for the technology to function, the need for community participation or the user demand of the final products.
This section gives a qualitative estimate of the space required for each technology, meaning the area or spatial footprint required by the technology. This can help planning in areas where space is a limiting factor. Asterisks are used to indicate how much space is needed for the given technology (three asterisks: much space required, two asterisks: medium space required, and one asterisk: little space required). The categorisation is based on a comparative approach between the different technologies and not in absolute terms.
This section gives an overview of the technical and operational complexity of each technology, meaning the level of technical expertise needed to implement, operate and maintain the given technology. This can help planning where skills and capacities are limited or temporarily unavailable. Asterisks indicate the technical complexity of the given technology (three asterisks: high complexity, two asterisks: medium complexity, and one asterisk: low complexity). Low technical complexity means that no or minimal technical skills are required to implement, operate and maintain a technology: it can be done by non-professionals and artisans. Medium technical complexity means that certain skills are required either for implementation or O&M. Skilled artisans or engineers are required for the design and O&M of such a technology. High technical complexity means that an experienced expert, such as a trained engineer, is required to implement, operate and maintain a technology sustainably. The categorisation is based on a comparative approach between the different technologies and not in absolute terms.
This section indicates where cooperation and collaboration with other actors may be required. It may include links to the host communities, private sector actors, utilities, or the necessary coordination with other humanitarian sectors (such as camp coordination and camp management, shelter, or agriculture).
Different technologies are required for the management of different inputs and the generation of specific outputs. Therefore, when selecting technologies, consider the input products that must be managed and the desired output products. This section lists the input products that typically flow into the given technology.
This section lists the output products that typically flow out of the given technology.
Key design considerations are described in this section, including general sizing, space requirements and other features. This section does not cover the detailed design parameters that allow the complete implementation of a technology but gives an idea of the dimension features to consider and the main potential pitfalls to be aware of when designing and implementing the technology. This section helps the Compendium users understand a given technology’s technical design and complexity.
This section lists the different materials and equipment required for the construction, operation and maintenance of a given technology. It indicates whether materials are likely to be locally available or producible (e.g. wood and bricks) or whether materials will need to be imported or require special manufacturing, which will considerably delay implementation during an emergency. The materials section also indicates whether a technology can be prefabricated as a unit to speed up implementation.
Applicability describes the contexts for which a technology is most appropriate. This section indicates a technology’s applicability in terms of type of setting, distinguishing between rural or urban, short or longer-term. The section also describes the phases of an emergency in which a technology can be implemented and provides information on the potential for replicability, scalability and the speed of implementation.
Every technology requires O&M, more so if it is used over a prolonged period. The O&M implications of each technology must be considered during initial planning. Many technologies fail due to a lack of appropriate O&M. In this section, the main operation tasks that must be considered and the maintenance required to guarantee longer-term operation are listed. The section differentiates between different O&M skills and provides an indication of the frequency of O&M tasks and the time required to operate and maintain a technology. A list of potential misuses and pitfalls to be aware of is also provided.
Most SWM technologies have health and safety implications. The health implications or risks described in this section should be considered during planning to reduce health risks in the local community and among staff. The health and safety section also describes overall risk management procedures, which can lead to decisions to exclude a technology if safety cannot be guaranteed. Where relevant, the personal protective equipment needed to guarantee personal safety is listed.
Each technology has costs associated with construction, operation, maintenance and management (including the cost implications for other technologies along the SWM chain). Costs are geographically dependent and cannot be described in absolute numbers. Hence, this section presents the main cost elements associated with a technology and a price range where possible, allowing for a first approximation.
Social considerations are important when deciding on specific SWM technologies, especially at the user level. Potential cultural taboos, user preferences and habits as well as local capacities may be challenging, impossible or inappropriate to change. An SWM technology needs to be accepted by/acceptable to the users and the personnel operating and maintaining it.
This section concisely summarises the main strengths and weaknesses, supporting the decision-making process. A technology’s weaknesses might indicate that an exclusion criterion is fulfilled and a technology is not suitable for a specific context. Both strengths and weaknesses can be effectively used to inform the decisions of users and all those involved in the planning and implementation of the SWM system.
This section refers users to specific pages of a detailed bibliography included in the annexe to the Compendium. The bibliography is a compilation of the most relevant SWM publications sorted by chapter with a short description for each listed publication. Users can use the publication list to find additional relevant information (e.g. design guidelines, research papers, case studies) on specific technologies.
Stages of the SWM service chain (also referred to as functional groups) are groupings of technologies that have similar functions. The SWM Technology Overview section describes four different stages from which technologies can be chosen to build a SWM service chain. Each stage has a distinct colour; technologies within a given stage share the same colour code so that they are easily identifiable. Additionally, the technologies within each stage are assigned a reference code with a single letter and number:
Technologies S.1 – S.3 refers to technologies that allow for the temporary holding of waste materials at or near the point of generation. It is usually the first step of the SWM service chain before collection and transport, treatment and recycling, and the final use or safe disposal. Without sufficient and functional storage at the point of generation, waste is scattered within settlements, leading to public health risks: the waste may never enter the SWM service chain. Storage of waste can occur directly at the household level but can also be transferred to communal and shared solutions. Waste storage in public areas is another option that can prevent littering and unmanaged waste deposits in public areas where household or communal storage does not provide sufficient coverage.
Technologies C.1 – C.5 refers to the processes of gathering waste from its point of generation, temporarily holding and moving it to a facility where it can be treated and recycled and finally used or disposed of. Collection and transport need to be reliable and regular; their capacity must be adjusted to the production levels of waste. Although primary/secondary products may need to be collected and transported between different functional groups, the most prominent gap is usually between storage and treatment and recycling. To simplify the service chain model, the transport of products between other steps of the chain (e.g. between treatment and the final use and disposal) is not displayedin the SWM service chain structure but may have to be taken into consideration.
Technologies T.1 – T.8 refers to technologies that promote circularity and value recovery from waste and reduce the waste amounts for disposal and the respective environmental and public health impacts. This section focuses on technologies for organic waste treatment and the recycling of plastics. Technologies for recycling other waste fractions (e.g. paper, metal, or glass) are purposely omitted. Due to their sophistication, energy requirements or required processing scale, it is unlikely that these recycling processes would be implemented in humanitarian settings by humanitarian actors but would instead be handed over to local market actors.
Technologies U.1 – U.12 refers to technologies and methods employed for the final use of the output products of the SWM service chain or – if use is not an option – the various options for safe or unsafe disposal. The recommended use and disposal options are listed in the SWM service chain structure in descending order of priority: whenever possible, the use of recovered valuable and usable materials is prioritised over safe disposal, and safe disposal of waste is prioritised over unsafe disposal. Although it is strongly recommended to avoid unsafe disposal options, they have nonetheless been included to highlight their disadvantages and as these practices might be applied at the onset of emergencies due to the lack of suitable alternatives.
Solid waste products refer to the wide range of different domestic solid waste streams generated in a humanitarian context (often also referred to as primary products) and the various products generated as part of the SWM process (so-called secondary products). For the design of a robust SWM service chain, it is necessary to identify all the products that are flowing into (inputs) and out of (outputs) each of the technologies of the chain. Liquid waste, such as human excreta and wastewater, is intentionally not included and should never enter the SWM service chain.
Organic Waste: refers to any organic matter that can be broken down by microorganisms into their constituent elements and compounds. It commonly consists of plant and animal matter, kitchen waste (such as food scraps, trimmings and spoiled food) and food market waste. It can be decomposed during aerobic and anaerobic processes and transformed into valuable resources like biogas T.3, compost T.1, fuel T.5 or animal feed and frass T.4. Using processed organic waste in agriculture U.5 enables the recirculation of nutrients and carbon for plant growth. Organic materials which take longer to decompose, such as wood or bamboo, can be used to produce solid fuels U.7. Separating and processing organic waste helps to reduce the volume of waste sent to disposal sites and reduces the emission of flammable and greenhouse gases from deposited waste. It contributes to more environmentally friendly waste management practices and to reducing public health risks. Organic waste can be further differentiated into fast-degrading Organic Food/Kitchen Waste and slower-degrading Organic Garden/Wood Waste (see detailed description below). Organic waste is often also referred to as “biodegradable waste”.
Organic Garden/Wood Waste: refers to the slower-degrading fraction of organic waste that is generally more fibrous than food waste. It commonly consists of bamboo, nut shells, sawdust, agricultural residues, twigs, branches and (untreated) timber and construction wood. It has a high carbon content, which makes it an important component in composting T.1) and vermicomposting T.2 for balancing the carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio and is a valuable source for producing solid biomass fuel T.5.
Organic Food/Kitchen Waste: refers to any fast-degrading organic matter that can be broken down by microorganisms into their constituent elements and compounds. It commonly consists of food scraps, trimmings, leftover and spoiled food, and food market waste. It is rich in nutrients, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, making it suitable for composting T.1 to produce nutrient-rich compost. It can be decomposed during aerobic and anaerobic processes and transformed into valuable resources like biogas [T.3, compost T.1, or animal feed and frass T.4. Using processed organic food/kitchen waste in agriculture U.5 enables the recirculation of nutrients for plant growth. Separating P.2 and processing organic waste helps to reduce the volume of waste sent to disposal sites, reduces the emission of flammable and greenhouse gases from deposited waste and contributes to more environmentally friendly waste management practices X.8.
Recyclables: are mainly non-biodegradable materials that can be collected, processed and reused to create new products. Recycling these materials involves sorting, cleaning and processing them so that they can be used as raw materials to produce new goods. Recycling indicates that the produced new goods have comparable material properties and functions as the original material. The reuse of materials to produce items with reduced material properties is termed ’downcycling’ T.8, while ’upcycling’ T.7 describes the artistic and creative reuse of waste materials with the potential to increase their quality or value. Recycling waste is a key component of SWM, helping to conserve natural resources, reduce energy consumption and decrease the environmental impact associated with the extraction and production of new materials. Recyclable waste typically includes paper and cardboard, glass, metals, plastics or textiles (see detailed description below). However, whether a material can be categorised as “recyclable” depends on the location, as recycling is driven by regulatory requirements and economic interests. While it may be technically feasible to recycle the above-mentioned materials, the recycling infrastructure and service chain may not be in place in a particular location.
Plastics: refers to synthetic or semi-synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers. Different plastic types are distinguished by their polymers, including Polyethylene (PE), High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), and various others. If a plastic item only consists of one plastic type, it is potentially recyclable. The feasibility, complexity and economic incentive to recycle depends on the plastic type and cleanliness of plastic waste. If plastics are mixed with other materials, such as metal coating or cardboard, they are considered composite materials. While the recycling of composite materials might be technically feasible, it might not be of economic interest, and composite materials are therefore commonly considered non-recyclable. Plastic waste includes plastic packaging, bottles, containers and other products made from plastic materials. Plastic waste poses environmental challenges due to its persistence and potential for pollution. Recycling involves collecting, sorting and processing plastic waste to manufacture new plastic products.
Paper or Cardboard: encompasses products from cellulose fibres such as cardboard or paper packaging, newspapers, magazines or office paper. Processed cellulose fibre originates from wood, grasses or other plant sources. However, as paper or cardboard also contains non-biodegradable auxiliary materials (such as colour pigments, glue or lamination), they are not commonly listed as biodegradable materials. Paper or cardboard is considered recyclable waste that can be collected, processed and reused to create new products. The recycling of paper and cardboard is a common practice, and these materials are often collected separately from other waste streams to facilitate the recycling process.
Metals: refer to a range of materials which are made completely or mostly of metal material such as copper, aluminium or iron. Metal waste includes items such as aluminium cans, steel packaging and scrap metal from construction or manufacturing processes. Metals are valuable materials that can be recycled repeatedly without significant loss of quality. The recycling of metal waste involves collecting, sorting and processing these materials for reuse in manufacturing new metal products.
Glass: refers to a solid, brittle and often transparent material. Silica is commonly its main component and the main glass-forming constituent, but depending on function and colour, glass can also contain other constituents such as soda, lime, metals and other fining agents. Glass waste includes used glass bottles, jars, containers, or other consumer products made of glass. Glass recycling can be conducted with both intact and broken glass items. It involves the separate collection of used glass and its melting to produce new glass products. Different glass colours and glass types, which are used for different functions and contain different additives (e.g. glass used as beverage containers, window glass, or laboratory glass), may need to be collected separately.
Textile: refers to materials made from natural or synthetic fabrics. Textile waste includes worn-out clothing, household textiles and manufacturing scraps. Recycling initiatives often focus on collecting and processing textile waste for reuse, either through transforming textiles into new products or converting them into fibres for use in various applications.
Mixed Waste: refers to a combination of various types of waste materials that are commingled and disposed of together and that are difficult to separate. This waste stream typically includes a mixture of biodegradable, non-biodegradable, recyclable and non-recyclable materials. Mixed waste may include a diverse range of items such as food scraps, paper, plastics, glass, metals and other miscellaneous waste. Managing mixed waste can be challenging because the separate handling of different waste components is not possible unless labour-intensive sorting is done. Hence, effective waste management strategies aim to encourage source segregation, with the separation of recyclable and biodegradable materials from non-recyclables, reducing the complexity and environmental impact of mixed waste disposal P.2. The advantage of the initial source segregation is that reusable and recyclable resources are not soiled by the entire waste matrix. This simplifies their further processing and commonly leads to higher prices for the sale of recyclables. A specific form of mixed waste is litter, which is small pieces of rubbish or discarded items that are improperly disposed of in public places. Litter commonly includes items such as food wrappers, cigarette butts, beverage containers and other small items left in outdoor areas, parks, streets, or public spaces. It is also prone to end up in drainage and stormwater systems and can lead to blockages or reduced drainage efficiency.
Residual Waste: refers to the waste that remains after materials that can be reused, recycled or composted have been separated and removed. It includes items that are typically disposed of in landfills or incinerated in municipal waste incineration plants. Residual waste encompasses a variety of materials, such as composite plastics, mixed waste and other items that are challenging to recycle or do not have established recycling markets. Reducing the generation of residual waste through waste minimisation and recycling efforts is a key goal in sustainable waste management practices. Waste-to-energy technologies are sometimes employed to generate energy from the incineration of this waste. However, this approach is mainly found in high-income settings as municipal waste incineration is expensive, complex and high maintenance and the generated energy is costly compared to other energy sources.
Compost: refers to decomposed biodegradable matter that results from a controlled aerobic degradation process T.1. In this biological process, microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) decompose the biodegradable waste components and produce an earth-like, odourless, brown/black material. Compost has excellent soil amendment properties and a variable nutrient content. Because of leaching and volatilisation, some of the nutrients may be lost, but the material remains rich in plant-available micro and macronutrients and organic matter. Generally, the composting process should be long enough (2 to 4 months) under thermophilic conditions (55 to 60 °C) to sanitise the compost sufficiently for safe agricultural use.
Vermicompost: refers to a type of compost produced through the breakdown of organic waste by earthworms. In this process T.2, earthworms consume organic materials such as food scraps, agricultural residues and other biodegradable waste. As they digest this material, the worms produce castings or worm excrements rich in nutrients and beneficial microorganisms.
Animal Feed: either refers to nutritious biodegradable waste, ideally free from impurities and pathogens, for animal nutrition. Alternatively, it can refer to the indirect usage of biodegradable waste, for instance, the usage of Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae grown on biodegradable waste T.4. Animal feed derived from solid waste contains nutrients such as protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals and can be produced from biodegradable solid waste such as food waste, crop residues, food processing waste or animal manure.
Frass: refers to the waste products or excrement produced by insects, particularly larvae that feed on plants or organic material T.4. It is rich in nutrients and organic matter which are beneficial to plants. It is typically used as a fertiliser or soil amendment and can help improve soil health by adding organic content and beneficial microbes.
Solid Biomass Fuel: mainly derives from biodegradable garden/wood waste that has a higher cellulose content such as wood, bamboo, nut shells, sawdust and agricultural residues. While larger pieces of wood or bamboo can be directly used as fuel, smaller and more dense or powdery materials will burn less efficiently or not at all. These biomass wastes can be processed into pellets or carbonised or non-carbonised briquettes T.5. To produce pellets, crushed biomass is pressed into small granules with the natural lignin acting as a binder. For carbonised briquettes, biomass waste is transformed into charcoal, crushed into charcoal powder and compacted into briquettes with the use of additional binding agents. For non-carbonised briquettes, crushed biomass is directly mixed with binding agents and compressed. It is important to note that many of the stoves used to burn biomass fuels do not lead to clean cooking according to guidelines of the World Health Organization. The only exception might be the fan-based pyrolysis of biomass pellets in specialised stoves.
Biogas: is the common name for the mixture of gases released from the anaerobic digestion T.3 of organic material. Biogas comprises methane (50 to 75%), carbon dioxide (25 to 50 %) and varying quantities of nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, water vapour and other components, depending on the material being digested. Biogas can be collected and burned for fuel.
Digestate: is a by-product that remains after the anaerobic digestion T.3 process, in which organic material is broken down by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen into biogas (a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide) and digestate. The digestate is a nutrient-rich slurry that typically includes organic matter, macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients beneficial to soil health. The composition of digestate can vary depending on the type of feedstock used in the anaerobic digestion process. It can be used as a fertiliser, or soil conditioner or can be further composted.
Products from Processed Plastic: both single-type and composite plastic waste used in plastic bottles, containers, packaging materials and single-use items can be used to produce a wide range of new products. Three different approaches to plastic processing exist, and they differ in the properties, functionality and value of their end-products compared to the initial material. Recycling refers to the process where the end-product is of similar value and functionality as it originally was (e.g. using waste plastic items to make new plastic items); it is limited to single-type plastic waste. Upcycling T.7 refers to a higher value end-product and downcycling T.8 leads to an end product with lower value and functionality. Both upcycling and downcycling can use single-type and composite plastic waste, depending on the type of process. Recycling, and in some cases downcycling, requires the thermal modification of the raw material. It includes sorting, cleaning, shredding, melting and forming into granules and the moulding of granules into new products (by extrusion moulding, injection or compression moulding). Thermal modification must always be limited to single-type plastic waste. For downcycling, plastic waste might be mixed with other substances, such as sand, before thermal modification.
Medical and Health Care Waste: refers to waste materials generated by health care activities (such as waste produced in hospitals, clinics, dental practices, veterinary clinics, medical research facilities and laboratories). It also includes domestic-like waste that can be separated and managed as part of domestic or municipal SWM. Medical and health care waste includes a wide range of materials, some of which are hazardous to human health and the environment if not properly managed. It may include infectious waste, sharps, needles, syringes and other sharp objects, pathological waste and pharmaceutical, chemical and/or radioactive waste that must be managed separately W.1. In addition, medical and health care facilities produce domestic-like waste that can be separated and managed as part of the domestic or municipal SWM service chain.
Hazardous Waste: refers to waste that contains materials posing a potential threat to human health or the environment. These materials often exhibit the characteristics of toxicity, flammability, corrosiveness or reactivity. Examples of hazardous household waste include certain cleaning products, paints, solvents, pesticides, batteries and electrical and electronic devices. The proper disposal of hazardous domestic and municipal waste is essential to prevent environmental contamination and to protect the health and safety of waste handlers and the public W.2.
Disaster Waste: includes all solid and liquid waste generated from a natural disaster or conflict, both during the event itself as well as in the emergency response and recovery phases. It is characterised by typically large waste quantities, a mixture of various waste types and a strongly intertwined waste matrix, which further complicates its management W.3. It can include debris from damaged buildings and infrastructure, vehicles, hazardous substances, e-waste, unmanaged medical waste and domestic solid waste.
Menstrual and Incontinence Waste: refers to discarded items used for managing menstruation or incontinence, including products such as sanitary pads, tampons, panty liners and infant and adult diapers. This waste stream poses unique challenges due to the nature of the materials involved. Managing this waste requires both hygiene considerations and environmental impact to be addressed, as improper disposal can contribute to pollution and sanitation issues. Waste management practices for menstrual and incontinence products include dedicated collection systems, exploring environmentally friendly treatment options such as composting or recycling where feasible, and safe disposal methods. Public awareness and education are essential components of responsible waste management in this context W.4.
Relief Waste: refers to all waste generated by humanitarian relief operations, often also referred to as humanitarian waste W.5. This includes the waste generated by the humanitarian services provided, such as food waste, packaging materials, shelter waste and other Non-Food Items, and waste from the organisations’ functional services in offices, guest houses, warehouses and vehicle workshops.
Solid Waste from Sanitation Facilities and Drains: refers either to waste that has been directly discarded into sanitation systems (such as pits or septic tanks) or to solid waste and litter discarded in public spaces or streets that eventually accumulates in stormwater lines and drainage systems where it can lead to blockages, overflow, clogging of pipes and channels or stagnant water pools. The accumulation of solid waste in sanitation facilities is often due to a lack of other waste collection and management options. It can be comprised of a wide range of materials, including biodegradable matter (such as food waste), non-biodegradable materials (such as plastics, paper, glass, and metals), sanitary products (menstrual products or diapers), or debris. The removal of solid waste from sanitation facilities takes considerable effort (e.g. the manual removal from pits to facilitate proper pit emptying or waste screens in faecal sludge treatment plants). It contains a high faecal pathogen load, which requires corresponding treatment. Solid waste in drains may also consist of a wide range of materials, including biodegradable matter (such as food waste, leaves, and plant debris), non-biodegradable materials (such as plastics, paper, and metals), sediment, silt, sand and other debris. It may contain contaminants such as oils, grease, chemicals, pathogens and other pollutants, which can pose risks to human health and the environment if not properly managed W.6.
e-Waste or Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE): refers to discarded or obsolete electrical or electronic devices and appliances. E-waste includes a wide range of items such as computers, mobile phones, household appliances, lamps, photovoltaic panels and other electrical and electronic equipment. Due to the presence of toxic materials like heavy metals, e-waste must be considered as hazardous and posing a risk to public health and the environment; its safe recycling and disposal are critical. E-waste can also contain valuable commodities, including rare-earth metals, copper or gold. These can be recycled and reused if the waste is effectively managed. Improving the collection, treatment and recycling of electrical and electronic equipment at the end of their life can increase resource efficiency and support the shift to a circular economy W.7.
The design of humanitarian SWM must be adapted to the local context, the type of crisis and the current phase of an emergency. Common categories used to distinguish phases are (1) acute response, (2) stabilisation and (3) recovery. Depending on the type of humanitarian crisis, these phases might develop linearly with substantial overlaps, for example, after a natural disaster, or phases may display an erratic back-and-forth, especially between the first two phases, commonly found in armed conflicts.
Additional longer-term phases to consider are (4) protracted crisis and (5) development. Protracted crisis refers to situations where significant populations are acutely at risk over a prolonged period, such as during armed conflicts. The term might also be used for protracted displacement situations, which UNHCR defines as ’at least 25’000 refugees from the same country (...) living in exile for more than five consecutive years’. The development phase describes the shift from humanitarian aid towards development, which is longer-term, responds to systemic problems and is focused on economic, social and political developments.
The identification of these broad phases is helpful when planning assistance, whilst recognising that the division is theoretical and offers a simplified model of a highly complex situation.
This usually covers the period from the first hours and days of a crisis up to the first few weeks or months, when rapid, short-term and life-saving measures are implemented until more permanent or durable solutions can be found. Rapid humanitarian relief interventions immediately follow natural disasters, conflicts, epidemics/pandemics or further degradation of a protracted crisis. The purpose of these humanitarian interventions in the acute response phase is to secure and ensure the survival of the affected population and alleviate suffering. These humanitarian interventions are guided by the principles of humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence. It usually takes time for external support agencies to mobilise; those affected typically deal with the emergency initially themselves.
Immediately after a crisis, hygiene and waste disposal are usually poor, so disease vectors like rodents and vermin can spread and breed rapidly. SWM is a crucial element during the acute response to prevent the spread of diseases and protect public health. SWM interventions usually start with a risk analysis identifying and prioritising the main public health concerns related to solid waste and the outlining of potential countermeasures. The risk analysis is usually based on a rapid assessment of the current status of SWM, which may include the type and volume of waste generated, existing SWM practices, the identification of potential (temporary) storage, containment and disposal sites, and the available means for waste collection and transportation P.3. This risk analysis will determine the immediate needs for SWM infrastructure, equipment and personnel. Based on the initial assessment, and depending on the local context, acute response SWM interventions may include establishing clearly marked collection points (with waste segregation options where possible) P.2 and setting up a system for the regular removal and transport of waste to disposal sites (or, in the unlikely case of source-segregated waste, to treatment and recycling sites) T . Ideally, waste can be deposited in existing properly functioning facilities. In the absence of suitable disposal facilities, temporary and, if possible, final disposal sites need to be rapidly identified and prepared to protect public health and the environment. Coordination with local authorities, humanitarian actors (intersectoral and cross-sector) and other relevant stakeholders is important to ensure a coordinated response to waste management.
Depending on the type of crisis and context, initial SWM interventions might require preparatory actions which likely do not involve traditional SWM actors. This can include the movement of debris for the provision of access W.3, the clearing of sites of non-explosive ordnance or the recovery of human remains. It is also possible that an initially limited SWM focus will lack the capacity to address the management of specific waste types with elevated risk potential, such as Medical Waste W.1 or Hazardous Waste W.2.
The stabilisation (or transition) phase usually starts after the first few weeks/months of an emergency and can last six months or longer. The focus now is increasing the service coverage, the incremental upgrade and improvement of temporary structures and ensuring the active participation and engagement of the affected population. After natural disasters or in crisis settings with an elevated risk of natural disasters, relevant pre-emptive resilience and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) measures should be implemented during the stabilisation phase. The active involvement and inclusion of affected communities in the design and execution of humanitarian interventions should start as early as possible X.2. Depending on the type of disaster and crisis, this inclusion could be initiated during the stabilisation phase, ensuring equitable consideration of the needs of women, children and marginalised and vulnerable groups in the planning, decision-making and local management of SWM solutions. In addition, awareness-raising about proper waste management practices or encouraging participation in clean-up efforts may be required as well as the provision of targeted information on waste separation, disposal and potential health risks X.6.
Participation helps to ensure that the entire affected population has safe and adequate access to SWM services and practices corresponding behaviours. Additional in-depth assessments P.3 of the factors underpinning behaviours may be needed to respond adequately within a given local context and increase the longer-term acceptance of the planned interventions. The effectiveness of the initial interventions and the environmental impact of SWM activities (to prevent pollution and ensure compliance with regulatory standards) need to be monitored and should also lead to adaptations and improvements in the response where required X.3. SWM interventions may include the establishment of additional community-supported structures and, where possible, the increasing involvement of development actors. The scope for using Market-Based Programming (MBP) should also be examined X.5.
The recovery phase, sometimes referred to as the rehabilitation phase, aims to recreate or improve the pre-emergency situation of the affected population by increasingly incorporating development approaches and principles. This phase usually starts after, or sometimes during, acute relief or stabilisation interventions (usually >6 months) and can be viewed as a continuation of completed relief efforts. Overall, it can prepare the ground for longer-term development interventions and for handing over to medium and long-term partners. In general, recovery should consider the implementation of durable solutions and the concept of build-back-better. Depending on local needs, the general timeframe for recovery and rehabilitation interventions is usually between six months and three years. Difficult and complex situations, such as conflict-affected areas, may need much longer and can move in and out of crisis.
Recovery and rehabilitation programmes are characterised by the active participation of local partners and authorities in planning and decision making, strengthening local capacity and promoting the sustainability of interventions X.2. The scope for using MBP approaches should be further assessed here X.5. SWM recovery interventions vary; they continue to depend on local conditions as well as the affected population’s immediate and structural needs. Beyond the technical implementation of relevant SWM infrastructure, these interventions include significant efforts to strengthen SWM service structures and systems. Routines should be rapidly developed and implemented for waste storage, collection and disposal. Whenever possible, existing national or local SWM actors should be strengthened to increase the quality of their services and potentially expand them beyond their current mandate. In displacement settings, strengthened local utilities may cover both host and displaced communities. This can ensure an equitable provision of services and prevent tensions between different communities X.9.
Recovery interventions also include longer-term capacity strengthening and training, including working with relevant local authorities and development partners. Stronger collaboration with utilities, civil society and the private sector, and the handing over of responsibilities is important; it requires the increasing participation of stakeholders in planning and decision-making early on X.2. Where possible, recovery interventions should provide a foundation for the further development of SWM facilities and services and include relevant resilience and DRR measures. Such plans should also integrate a long-term development vision that enhances recycling and recovery options, technical skills and capacity, financial self-sufficiency and other elements of a sustainable SWM system. Effective recovery plans have clear transition or exit strategies, including hand-over to local governments, communities or service providers to ensure that the intervention’s service levels can be maintained.
Refers to populations affected by recurrent disasters and/or conflicts, prolonged food crises, the deterioration of people’s health and a breakdown of livelihoods. In these environments, a significant proportion of the population can become acutely vulnerable to a prolonged increase in mortality and morbidity rates. Protracted crises often occur in already fragile environments, where the state is unwilling or unable to fulfil its basic functions and to manage, respond to, or mitigate risks. In protracted crises, including protracted refugee situations, SWM interventions may resemble actions normally conducted during the acute response or the stabilisation phase. The short or medium-term perspective of these actions might be affected by fluctuating security and stability, the need to adapt to changing boundary conditions such as increased population figures, the elevated need for humanitarian assistance, the limited self-reliance of affected communities or the constraint to only implement measures of a temporary nature.
The development phase is characterised by a stronger focus on universal access and the longer-term sustainability of services. Interventions in the development phase may include the fostering of relevant legislative frameworks X.1, institutional strengthening and enhancing technical capacities for local authorities and utilities, recognising that these national and local actors must take the lead in SWM and execute it in a safe, effective and financially sustainable manner. In the development phase, affordable and equitable access to SWM services must be ensured for the entire community, including measures for the inclusion of vulnerable, marginalised and low-income households X.2. SWM interventions in development may also aim to shift away from simple waste disposal towards an increased recovery of usable and valuable materials and more circular economy approaches. This can include the improvement of reducing, reusing and recycling waste, livelihood opportunities, operation and maintenance of services, longer-term behaviour change and habit formation X.6, ownership and empowerment X.2. In disaster and crisis-prone regions, preventative measures such as DRR, preparedness and climate change adaptation activities should be considered and addressed during the development stage.
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